DECISION AND ORDER Plaintiffs Mondaire Jones, Alessandra Biaggi, Chris Burdick, Stephanie Keegan, Seth Rosen, Shannon Spencer, Kathy Rothschild, Diana M. Woody, Perry Sainati, Robert Golub, Mary Winton Green, Marsie Wallach, Matthew Wallach, Mac Wallach, Carol Sussman, and Rebecca Rieckhoff (“Plaintiffs”) filed this action against defendants United States Postal Service (“USPS” or “Postal Service”); Louis DeJoy, as Postmaster General (“DeJoy”), and Donald J. Trump, as President of the United States (“President,” and together with the Postal Service and DeJoy, “Defendants” or the “Government”). (See “Amended Complaint,” Dkt. No. 36.) Plaintiffs seek declaratory relief and a preliminary injunction mandating that the Postal Service take certain actions to ensure the timely delivery of their absentee ballots in the upcoming national elections being held November 3, 2020. (See “Motion,” Dkt. No. 19-1; “Notice of Motion,” Dkt. No. 19.) The Court held a hearing on September 16, 2020, and heard witness testimony. For the reasons that follow, the Court GRANTS in part the Motion. Introduction Nothing is more essential to a true democracy than the right to vote. Where that right is constitutionally guaranteed and exercised by citizens through free and fair elections protected by government authority, democratic rule thrives. Conversely, impairing the franchise, or imposing undue burdens on the ability of voters to cast ballots for their elected leaders, necessarily threatens democracy and erodes the underpinnings of a republican form of government. For that reason, this country’s founding constitutional principles have designed and enshrined by law the means to ensure free and fair balloting at every level of representative government. To that end, our system has made affirmative provisions not only to ensure maximum ease for citizens to gain access to the ballot box, but also to remove obstacles to voting and repulse attempts, whether by coercion, dilution, discrimination, or other like deleterious means, to interfere with voting rights. One of the evident ways by which our society fosters and guarantees voting rights is by absentee balloting, accommodating the exceptional needs of citizens unable to vote in person for various legitimate reasons — illness, travel, education or employment out of the jurisdiction, or military or diplomatic service. Protecting the franchise of such citizens, and enforcing effective rules to do so, should be no less an essential obligation of the government than is securing voting in person. In fact, the law makes no such distinction. Instead, all voters, regardless of whether they submit their ballots in person or by mail, have a right to have their votes counted and their voices heard. The case before the Court presents these principles. The context in which this litigation arises is essential to an analysis and resolution of the controversy. The entire world is now in the grip of a catastrophic pandemic caused by the coronavirus, a phenomenon that has inflicted a heavier toll of illness and death on the United States than on any other nation. By recent government count, COVID-19 has already infected over 6.7 million Americans and claimed over 198,000 lives.1 In its wake, and pertinent to the action before the Court, the disease has engendered widespread fear that conducting elections requiring voters to appear at the polls to cast their ballots in person, there having to occupy enclosed spaces through which thousands of people would pass throughout the day and handle the same voting equipment, would produce conditions conducive to the spread of the illness. To address these concerns, at least 22 states and the District of Columbia have changed their laws to encourage voters to cast their ballots by mail; 34 states and the District of Columbia already permitted anyone to vote by mail, and only five states require an excuse (beyond concerns related to COVID-19).2 There is no dispute that this development will bring about a predictable effect at issue here: a significant surge in the volume of election mail the USPS is being called upon to handle. These circumstances present unique challenges and opportunities for public officials, not only those in charge of the Postal Service but also leaders of the rest of the government, federal and state. The crisis demands, as Plaintiffs here urge, extraordinary measures and firm commitment to ensure that all citizens wishing to exercise their right to vote are able to do so without needing to confront an untenable choice: risk contracting a potentially fatal illness by voting in person, or foregoing their right to vote in a presidential election. That prospect likely will come to pass if a mail-in balloting option is available but gives no reliable assurance that citizens could cast their ballots and that their votes would be delivered to election authorities in time to be counted. Against this backdrop, this case raises some central questions. Some are philosophical and implicate the Postal Service’s core mission. The Postal Service has developed a proud reputation for its paramount resolve, memorialized in the famous inscription carved on the pediment of the General Post Office Building in New York City, to deliver the mail despite any obstacles.3 Postal operations have also been guided by the ethic and spirit of the language of the USPS’s charter mandate. That statute evinces a legislative design that the entity is not just another government agency rendering a necessary public service, but one that performs a vital national purpose: to “bind the Nation together.” The nation’s extraordinary efforts to deliver election mail from members of the armed forces during the Civil War and World War II provide compelling examples of that ingrained commitment. Beyond these issues implicating the USPS’s core values, this case presents various operational and financial concerns. How has the Postal Service responded to these developments? Specifically, are the agency’s organization, operations, and finances adequate to meet the unprecedented difficulties posed by the combined impact on mail service of the pandemic and the greater volume of absentee or mail-in ballots that voters will cast in a few weeks? To these questions Plaintiffs here answer “No.” They charge that in fact the Postal Service has retreated from the dedication to its institutional ethic and historical culture of delivering the mail as an overarching national function. As evidence, Plaintiffs point to the vision of a “transformative initiative” recently instituted by DeJoy upon his assumption of his office — measures that included, for example, reduction of overtime pay, elimination of mail sorting machines on a larger scale than previously done since 2016, directing mail trucks to leave as scheduled, even if it would entail leaving mail behind for delivery another day. According to Plaintiffs, such policy and operational changes have redefined and rechanneled the USPS’s mission to follow the business model of a private enterprise. Under this approach, according to Plaintiffs, the Postal Service’s commitment to delivering all of the mail may be sacrificed in the name of efficiency. As evidence, Plaintiffs point out that, correlating with DeJoy’s postal reforms, within weeks of the adoption of the new approach the service standards for First-Class Mail declined and have not yet fully recovered to reach what they were before the initiatives. Adding complication to the situation, Plaintiffs call attention to a statement made by President Trump’s deputy campaign manager Justin Clark, quoted as having said that “[t]he President views vote by mail as a threat to his election.” And the President himself made a statement that was interpreted as urging voters who mail in ballots to also vote in person, in order to test the system.4 Accordingly, in the midst of the exceptional demands presented by a national health crisis, and confronted simultaneously with a presidential election that will generate an unprecedented surge of mail ballots, rather than focusing efforts and resources on guaranteeing that citizens’ apprehensions about the coronavirus crisis would not impede exercise of their right to vote, the Postal Service, the Postmaster General, and the President have made public statements and taken steps manifesting a somewhat ambiguous course. They have not provided trusted assurance and comfort that citizens will be able to cast ballots with full confidence that their votes would be timely collected and counted. Rather, as detailed below, their actions have given rise to management and operational confusion, to directives that tend to generate uncertainty as to who is in charge of policies that ultimately could affect the reliability of absentee ballots, thus potentially discouraging voting by mail. Conflicting, vague, and ambivalent managerial signals could also sow substantial doubt about whether the USPS is up to the task, whether it possesses the institutional will power and commitment to its historical mission, and so to handle the exceptional burden associated with a profoundly critical task in our democratic system, that of collecting and delivering election mail a few weeks from now. The Court is persuaded that the circumstances Plaintiffs portray in their complaint, sufficiently supported by evidence on the record of this proceeding, warrant relief. The right to vote is too vital a value in our democracy to be left in a state of suspense in the minds of voters weeks before a presidential election, raising doubts as to whether their votes will ultimately be counted. I. BACKGROUND A. FACTUAL BACKGROUND AND PROCEDURAL HISTORY The Postal Service operates over 31,000 Post Offices, 204,274 delivery vehicles, and more than 8,500 pieces of automated processing equipment. (See “Tinio Decl.,” Dkt. No. 24, Ex. 1 at 6.) It delivers “48 percent of the world’s mail volume and more packages to the home than any other business.” (Id.) But, while it is a “fundamentally strong organization,” the Postal Service is “not financially strong.” (Id.) Eroding mail volumes, universal service obligations, and legislative mandates strain its financial stability. (Id.) DeJoy became the country’s 75th Postmaster General on June 15, 2020. He has stated that he views his role as an opportunity to help the Postal Service “to better serve the American public and also to operate in the financially sustainable manner.” (Tinio Decl. Ex. 5, at 5.) Before his installment as Postmaster General, DeJoy was reported to have made substantial donations to President Trump’s re-election campaign. (See Id. at 48.) Further, Plaintiffs note that while the Postal Service is an independent agency, “Secretary of the Treasury Mnuchin and White House Chief of Staff Mark Meadows have been in close contact with both the USPS Board of Governors and Postmaster General DeJoy.” (See “Jamison Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-2, 22.) Plaintiffs suggest that, in an effort to curtail the perceived threat posed by mail-in voting, “[t]he Trump administration is intentionally involving itself in day to day postal operations.” (Id. 27.) Plaintiffs comprise a collection of individuals from States across the country, including a Democratic candidate for Congress from New York and several New York state and local political candidates, each with interests in the accuracy and integrity of the November 2020 national election (the “Candidate Plaintiffs”); and numerous voters (the “Voter Plaintiffs”) who either plan to vote by mail for reasons related to the COVID-19 pandemic — broadly: (1) travel restrictions that prevent voters from returning to their states of residence, and (2) exposure risks that render inperson voting dangerous — or, in the case of Spencer, have chosen to risk infection and vote in person because of fears the USPS cannot timely handle Election Mail. Plaintiffs filed a complaint on August 17, 2020. (“Complaint,” Dkt. No. 1.) On September 2, 2020, Plaintiffs filed their Motion. (See Motion; Jamison Decl.; “Jones Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-3, “Biaggi Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-4, “Barrios Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-5; “Mac Wallach Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-6; “Matthew Wallach Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-7; “Marsie Wallach Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-8; “Rieckhoff Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-9; “Rosen Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-10; “Sussman Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-11; “Winton Green Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-12; “Rothschild Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-13; “Green Decl.,” Dkt. No. 19-14.) On September 8, 2020, the Government opposed the Motion. (See “Opposition,” Dkt. No. 22; “Barber Decl.,” Dkt. No. 23; Tinio Decl.; “Vo Decl.,” Dkt. No. 25; “Stasa Decl.,” Dkt. No. 26; “Prokity Decl.,” Dkt. No. 27; “Glass Decl.,” Dkt. No. 28; “DeChambeau Decl.,” Dkt. No. 29; “Curtis Decl.,” Dkt. No. 30; “Couch Decl.,” Dkt. No. 31; “Colin Decl.,” Dkt. No. 32; “Cintron Decl.,” Dkt. No. 33.” Plaintiffs filed the Amended Complaint on September 9, 2020. The Amended Complaint brings claims under the First and Fifth Amendments of the Constitution against Defendants.5 On September 10, 2020, Plaintiffs filed a reply. (See “Reply,” Dkt. No. 38; “Jamison Reply Decl.,” Dkt. No. 38-1; “Barrios Reply Decl.,” Dkt. No. 38-4; “Spencer Decl.,” Dkt. No. 38-5.) Before the Court held the hearing in this matter, the Government submitted updated performance data and additional declarations for the Court’s consideration. (See “Kochevar Decl.,” Dkt. No. 45; “Supp. Cintron Decl.,” Dkt. No. 46-1; “Supp. Curtis Decl.,” Dkt. No. 46-2.) At the hearing, the Court heard testimony from Julia Bryan, a volunteer for Democrats Abroad; Jose Barrios; Mark Jamison, Plaintiffs’ expert witness; Robert Cintron (“Cintron”); Angela Curtis (“Curtis”); and Justin Glass (“Glass”). Following the hearing, Plaintiffs filed an additional exhibit. (See “Supp. Green Decl.,” Dkt. No. 47-1.) B. CHALLENGED POSTAL SERVICE ACTIONS Central to the Complaint are a handful of recent “dramatic and profound” policy changes within USPS, including (1) a prohibition on overtime, (2) a ban on late or extra trips even if deliveries are not fully completed, (3) a hiring freeze, (3) a policy titled “Expedited to Street/Afternoon Sortation” (“ESAS”) under which carriers are to spend minimal time in the office before departing and are prohibited from sorting mail until the afternoon when they have returned, and (4) widespread equipment reduction, removal, or destruction. On July 10, 2020, DeJoy participated in a teleconference with area vice presidents and members of headquarters. Defense witnesses Cintron, Vice President of Logistics, and Curtis, Vice President of Retail and Post Office Operations, both participated in the teleconference and testified that the subject was various initiatives to be implemented. These changes are outlined below. 1. Reduction of Late and Extra Trips During the July 10 teleconference with DeJoy, participants discussed a new policy restricting late and extra trips. According to Cintron, a “late” trip is a trip that departs after its scheduled departure time. (Tr. 45:18-22.6) An “extra” trip would be a trip made by “another piece of transportation” to move “additional volume.” (Tr. 45:24-46:2.) Cintron insisted that the statements made regarding late and extra trips at the July 10, 2020 meeting did not amount to a “ban,” but they did indicate that the “aspiration” was “not to have either one of those.” (Tr. 50:17-25.) Curtis echoed these sentiments, explaining that the elimination of late and extra trips was a goal, but that she understood it would not be achieved “overnight.” (Tr. 75:5-8.) Apparently, however, many postal workers received a different message. Following the teleconference, an area vice president created a “Standup Talk” document to memorialize the discussion that occurred on July 10, 2020. (Tr. 49:21-50:8; Amended Complaint Ex. 1.) The July 10, 2020 document titled “Mandatory Standup Talk: All Employees,” outlines a “long overdue” “operational pivot,” including certain changes to prior procedures. First, the memo explains that: (1) “late trips” and “extra trips are no longer authorized or accepted,” and (2) “[c]arriers must begin on time, leave for the street on time, and return on time.”7 The memo acknowledged that “[o]ne aspect of these changes that may be difficult for employees is that — temporarily — we may see mail left behind or mail on the workroom floor or docks…” but assures that “the delayed mail volumes will soon shrink significantly.” Likewise, a banner hanging in the Portland, Oregon plant on September 6, 2020 proclaimed, “No Employee has Authorization to Hold Trucks,” along with further directives stating, “Make sure every single employee in our building understands — All Trips Depart On Time.” (Jamison Reply Decl. Ex. 1.) And, a post office operations manager in Ohio drafted a July 14, 2020 PowerPoint presentation regarding DeJoy’s expectations for cost savings, including a directive that “[t]he plants are not to send mail late,” and “[i]f the plants are not on time they will hold the mail for the next day.” (Supp. Green Decl. at 3; Tr. 73:19-74:8.) While Curtis was “appalled” by this July 14 PowerPoint presentation, which she considered a misrepresentation of directives from the Postmaster General (Tr. 73:22), these circumstances reflect evidence of conflicting signals or confusion, at the very least that different Postal Service employees understood their instructions differently. And, at any rate, a reduction of late and extras did in fact occur. Glass testified that because of the initiative, “[w]e have had a significant reduction in both lates and a reduction in extra services.” (Tr. 47:23-48:3.) 2. Limits on Overtime Jose Carlos Barrios (“Barrios”), a Mail Processing Clerk at the San Antonio Main Post Office with 33 years of experience, testified that overtime was being cut back. This measure was also listed in the July 14 PowerPoint as one of DeJoy’s expectations. (Supp. Green Decl. at 1 (“POT will be eliminated. This is not cost effective and it will be taken away. Overtime will be eliminated. Again we are paying too much in OT and it is not cost effective and will soon be taken off the table.”).) DeJoy, however, testified before the House Oversight and Reform Committee that he “never put a limitation on overtime,” and that overtime could continue to be approved “as needed.” (Tinio Decl. Ex. 14, at 25; see also Colin Decl. 4.) Nonetheless, he stated that he intended to issue guidance on when managers could approve overtime, presumably to clarify, given evident confusion on the subject. (See id. at 27.) 3. Changes in Hiring USPS experienced staffing shortages because of the COVID-19 pandemic. John Prokity (“Prokity”), manager of Workforce Planning Insights & Analytics, explained that the Postal Service adjusted its hiring processes because of these pandemic-related staffing shortages. (Prokity Decl.
